Since the Bronze Age, cast objects have played a central role in devotional practice throughout Southeast Asia. Bronze sculptures of worship convert sound, invite touch, and transform physically – whether through ritual clothing, devotional rubbing, or by the natural process of oxidation. While unpredictable materials like terracotta or wood degraded during intensive rituals, bronze reliably withstood the elements and was, therefore, often favoured for its durable and versatile qualities. Thai bronzes were traditionally cast by the lost-wax method. Because the statues were first modelled in wax, they preserve a sense of immediacy and a direct impression of the artist’s hand. Aside from being arguably the liveliest material used for sculpture, bronze is exceptionally challenging to cast into three-dimensional images of the eternal gods, and thus, testifies to some of the most sophisticated craftsmanship of the ancient world.
Buddhist Bronzes from Thailand
The exhibition at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Asian Bronze (September 27, 2024 – January 12, 2025), explored the devotional weight of the material and its artistic imagination spanning over four millennia, comprising objects from prehistoric times to the present day. A collection of important Thai bronzes was loaned from the National Museum in Bangkok, including the monumental twelfth- or thirteenth-century Buddha on the Naga, which was one of the focal points of the exhibition, shedding light on the Thai masters’ aspiration for beauty and technical excellence.
Continuing the momentum of the Rijksmuseum exhibition, our focus also turns to the theme of bronzes, with a particular emphasis on their heritage in Thailand. Thai sculpture has been an integral part of Nies Oriental Art since the founding years. Initially, Marcel Nies focused almost exclusively on the arts of Thailand, as demonstrated by his first exhibition in collaboration with his father, Jean Nies entitled Sculpture from Cambodia and Thailand, which took place in Eersel in 1977 (Fig. 1). To this day, Thai art remains a pillar of our collection and a source of timeless admiration. We are pleased to present a curated selection of fine Thai sculpture, presented within their historical context. Although not comprehensive, this article highlights some of Thailand’s most cherished historic styles in sculpture.
LEFT: Fig. 1. Cover of exhibition catalogue, Jean and Marcel Nies, Sculpture from Cambodia and Thailand, Galerie de Ruimte, Eersel, 1977. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
Thai bronze culture can be subdivided into a plurality of schools and stylistic periods. Buddhist bronzes were introduced by the Dvaravati kingdom (circa sixth – eleventh century), which emerged in central Thailand following the settlement of the Mon people. In this period, masters favoured solid casts, as demonstrated by a standing statue of the historical Buddha Sakyamuni (Fig. 2). While largely following Indian prototypes, particularly of the Gupta period, Dvaravati bronzes display clear individuality, marked by deeply expressive features and a sense of unfiltered serenity, that laid the groundwork for subsequent stylistic periods in Thailand. This bronze can be placed in the earlier centuries of the period, circa the seventh or early eighth century, substantiated by the figure’s slender physicality and the application of minimalistic yet carefully placed auspicious elements, such as the circular lotus buds on the palms of his hands.
Khmer influence reached the Dvaravati kingdom in the tenth century, and by the early twelfth century, the Khmer King Suryavarman II invaded central Thailand, initiating a cultural and artistic fusion that gave rise to the Lopburi style. The Lopburi masters largely followed Khmer models from Angkor whilst maintaining a distinct Thai identity through more slender and humane features, and the addition of a shawl with a rectangular finial. Celebrated for its inherent elegance and seamless fusion of various stylistic idioms, the style is exemplified by a gilt bronze crowned statue of the historical Buddha – an iconographic type that flourished in this period (Fig. 3).
RIGHT: Fig. 2. Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Dvaravati kingdom, 7th -8th century, bronze, height: 54.6cm. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
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BELOW: Fig. 3. Crowned Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Lopburi, 12th century, gilt bronze, height: 25cm. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
The geopolitical and cultural landscape of present-day Thailand underwent a profound transformation during the thirteenth century. The gradual migration of Tai people from southern China brought sophisticated agricultural, political, and metallurgical practices to the region, culminating in the decline of Khmer dominance and the rise of independent Thai kingdoms. As a result, the physiognomy of Buddhist images changed significantly, producing distinctly Thai artistic traditions such as the Sukhothai, U Thong, and Lan Na styles. The highly expressive form that associates closely to Dvaravati and Lopburi shifted to more approachable depictions of the Buddha.
The Sukhothai kingdom, which emerged in the thirteenth century in the north-central regions of Thailand and lasted until 1438, became renowned as the Golden Age of Thai sculpture. This was a time of remarkable artistic achievement that largely formed Thailand’s cultural landscape. The Sukhothai masters were arguably the first to truly master the lost-wax technique, by conveying idealised images that feel effortless, hallmarked by lively volumes and fluid, clean lines.
Monumental Buddha statues from this period show little to no casting flaws, resulting in a smooth and polished surface that flows seamlessly through the figure. An imposing bronze of Buddha Sakyamuni, sold by Nies Oriental Art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2002, is a classic representation of the Sukhothai style (Fig. 4). The figure exhibits a full oval face, plump hair curls, and a powerful presence of transcendental peace.
Whilst such statues remain rare in Western collections, a second monumental, intact bronze of the seated Buddha displays a subtle variation in classic Sukhothai tradition, demonstrating a somewhat more slender physique in comparison to the bronze in the Met (Fig. 5). Cast with the same spirit, the shawl finial features more developed rippling pleats, and the garment exhibits additional draping just below the kneecaps and lower belly. The shape of the face and the volume of the torso are elegant and imbued with meditative breath.
LEFT: Fig. 4. Seated Buddha, Thailand, Sukhothai, 15th century, bronze, height: 68.6cm., purchase, The J. H. W. Thompson Foundation Gift and Gifts of friends of Jim Thompson, in his memory, 2002, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. no. 2002.131. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
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RIGHT: Fig. 5. Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Sukhothai kingdom, first half 15th century, bronze, height: 106cm. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
A third example that shows the Sukhothai master’s expert craftmanship is a larger than life-size head of the historical Buddha (Fig. 6). This portrait, which may have been a royal commission by the devout King Maha Thammaracha I (1347-1368), instils a profound sense of inner calm, distinguishing this cast as a superior example of its type. The bronze bears a flawless surface and meticulous modelling of the voluminous curls and facial features. His eyebrows flow smoothly into the bridge of his nose, which is a typical feature of Sukhothai Buddha images. His full face expresses inward meditation, emphasised by his heavy downcast eyes that are subtly inclined towards his nose. The head was first acquired by Nies in 1976 and published in local newspapers (Fig. 7). Having remained in a private collection for nearly half a century, this head’s return to the market marks a special occasion.
LEFT: Fig. 6. Head of Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Sukhothai, 14th century, bronze, height: 56cm., © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
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RIGHT: Fig. 7. Head of Buddha Sakyamuni, published in Antiek Revue, February/May 1976. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
In the neighbouring south-central regions of Thailand, the U Thong kingdom prospered. Whilst this period overlapped significantly with the Sukhothai kingdom, the sculpture produced here embodied a distinct artistic direction. In contrast to the idealised images of Sukhothai, the U Thong school aimed to convey inner serenity through naturalistic forms. By opting for a more rounded physiognomy with wider heads inspired by Khmer types, U Thong masters excelled in creating softly modelled, sensitive portraits, as demonstrated by a bronze seated Buddha acquired by the Rijksmuseum from Nies Oriental Art in 2023 (Fig. 8). A defining feature of this style is the prominent hair band separating the small curls from the forehead.
The scholar Alexander Griswold (1907-1991) identified three successive stylistic groups within U Thong Buddha images, referred to as A, B, and C. These subdivisions fall between the late twelfth and the fifteenth century and illustrate a clear development from a hybrid style that adopts elements from Dvaravati, Khmer, and Lopburi traditions, to a more stylised version, ultimately leading to the subsequent school of Ayutthaya.
RIGHT: Fig. 8. Seated Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, U Thong, bronze, height: 50.5cm., the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. AK-RAK-2022-10, © https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/object/—1c14b45b9329e2251e7c8e35535d9e4e
The U Thong prince, Ramathibodhi, relocated the capital of his kingdom to the south-central city of Ayutthaya in 1350, thereby establishing the Ayutthaya kingdom. For almost four centuries, Ayutthaya was the beating heart of the Peninsula. Renowned as a major centre for bronze-making, Ayutthaya’s workshops employed a refined use of the lost-wax technique, characterised by thin casts and highly detailed surface work. Their sculptural style captures a symbiosis of Angkor, U Thong and Sukhothai idioms, resulting in idealised images that prioritise artistic refinement. A graceful, sixteenth-century bronze head of the crowned historical Buddha illustrates the commendable skill of Ayutthaya artists (Fig. 9); the treatment of his crown is particularly notable, decorated entirely in relief with assorted floral motifs.
Buddha images from the Ayutthaya period of monumental scale are scarce. A large bronze of Buddha Sakyamuni was acquired by the Victoria & Albert Museum, London (inv. no. IS.11-1996) from Nies Oriental Art in the 1980s (Fig. 10). The standing figure reflects a classical image of the Buddha, performing the gesture of reassurance, abhayamudra. His forms are beautifully elongated and flow with subtle rhythm.
BELOW: Fig. 9. Crowned Head of Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Ayutthaya, 16th century, bronze, height: 38cm., © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
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LEFT: Fig. 10. Standing figure of Buddha Sakyamuni, north central Thailand, Ayutthaya, 15th-16th century, copper rich alloy, The Victoria & Albert Museum, London, inv. no. IS.11-1996, © The Victoria & Albert Museum, London.
The Lan Na kingdom settled in Thailand’s northernmost regions from the thirteenth to the early twentieth century, marking one of the country’s most formative stylistic periods. Their Buddha images possess a unique aesthetic distinct from neighbouring regions like Sukhothai. Lan Na sculptures are generally categorised into the Chiang Saen and Chiang Mai schools. Early Lan Na bronzes demonstrate more supple volumes and influence from Indian Pala statues, often referred to as being of the lion type. In contrast, later statues from circa the fifteenth century onwards, adopt a more linear approach. The volumes become slimmer, articulated with crisp lines, and introduce a greater sense of geometry to both the drapery and facial features.
An impressive bronze of Buddha Sakyamuni subduing Mara, seated on a tall throne adorned with lotus petals and latticework, illustrates the stylistic synthesis of Sukhothai and northern traditions that was achieved in the Lan Na period. The base firmly places the bronze in Lan Na, owing to its original design and commanding presence (Fig. 11). Whilst the figure’s iconography and composition are indebted to Sukhothai examples, it rejects their fluid approach to volume. Instead, it opts for a more conventionalised, structured modelling in both the clothing and bodily form that would come to define the Lan Na school.
Thai art had a lasting impact on the sculptural production in neighbouring regions. In Laos, the sculptural heritage is closely entwined with Thai tradition – a kinship clearly reflected in a Lao image of Parinirvana Buddha (Fig. 12). Prior to the establishment of the independent Lan Xang kingdom (1353 – 1707), Lao Buddhist images were largely shaped by those of Sukhothai and Lan Na, which had a profound effect on later stylistic developments in the country. Although the iconography of the reclining Buddha derives from northern Thai types, it was the Sukhothai workshops that truly mastered its form. The present bronze can be considered a product of a deeply rooted cultural exchange, as it is distinctly Lao in its character whilst adopting clear elements from Thai prototypes, including the Buddha’s hairstyle and the type of monastic garment. Statues of the reclining Buddha remain exceptionally rare across Southeast Asia, particularly in a reduced size, as demonstrated in this example.
LEFT: Fig. 11. Buddha Sakyamuni subduing Mara, Thailand, Lan Na, Chieng Mai, early 16th century, bronze, © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
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RIGHT: Fig. 12. Parinirvana Buddha, Laos, Lan Xang kingdom, circa 1600, bronze with traces of gilding, height: 42cm. © Nies Oriental Art, Antwerp.
Ultimately, Thailand’s historic styles synthesised into the Rattanakosin school, which formed a new national sculptural language. Initiated by King Rama I (1782–1809) and lasting until 1938, the statues of this period are trademarked by lavish ornamentation and elaborate regal elements. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London includes a highly detailed sculpture of the emaciated Buddha, which was commissioned by King Rama V of Thailand (1868–1910) (inv. no. LOAN:EENENS.1-2019) (Fig. 13). Acquired from Nies Oriental Art in 2010 by a private collector, the bronze was subsequently given to the V&A on a long-term loan. Its iconography derives from ancient Gandhara art, portraying Buddha Sakyamuni in his attempt to reach enlightenment through extreme fasting, reinforcing his discipline through meditation. This cast is a true reflection of a royal commission, testifying to unmatched quality, with each vein, rib, and drapery perfectly outlined and his expression severe yet serene. This cast ranks among the most significant Thai sculptures of the period in Western collections.
Driven by extraordinary innovation and creativity, Thai bronzes occupy an important place in the Southeast Asian art. Their artistic heritage reveals a complex network of stylistic periods, some of which overlapped whilst others succeeded one another. Despite the great variety of styles, these sculptures are firmly anchored by a distinctly Thai identity and a shared religious devotion that underscores the organic links between these diverse schools. Profound interest in Thai art within Western scholarship is a relatively recent phenomenon. The Rijksmuseum’s exhibition contributed greatly to the wider understanding and appreciation of Thai sculpture, with a specific focus on Asian bronzes. Thai sculpture not only marks the origin of Nies Oriental Art but remains a cornerstone of our gallery.
RIGHT: Fig. 13. Emaciated Buddha Sakyamuni, Thailand, Rattanakosin period, 19th century, commissioned by King Rama V of Thailand (r. 1868–1910), bronze, height: 89cm., Ger Eenens Collections The Netherlands, on loan to the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, inv. no. LOAN:EENENS.1-2019.
FURTHER READING
T. Bowie, M. C. Subhadradis Diskul and A.B. Griswold, The Sculpture of Thailand, New York, 1972.
J. Boisselier and M. Beurdeley, The Heritage of Thai sculpture, New York, 1975.
S. Wattanavrangkul, Outstanding Sculptures of Buddhism and Hindu Gods, Bangkok, 1975.
C. Stratton and M. McNair Scott, Art of Sukhothai: Thailand’s golden age from the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fifteenth centuries, Oxford, 1987.
M. C. Subhadradis Diskul, A. B. Griswold, Hindu Gods at Sukhodaya, Bangkok, 1990.
H.W. Woodward, Jr., The Sacred Sculpture of Thailand, The Alexander B. Griswold Collection, exh. cat. The Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, 1997.
S. Lopetcharat, Lao Buddha, The Image and Its History, Thailand, 2000.
C. Stratton, Buddhist Sculpture from Northern Thailand, Chiang Mai, 2004.
S. Lopetcharat, Thailand, A History in Buddha Image, 2006, Bangkok.
A. Ślączka, C. Wang, and W. Southworth, Asian Bronze: 4,000 Years of Beauty, exh. cat. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, 2024.
For any further queries on the sculptures illustrated, please write us at info@niesorientalart.com
